Physical Education and Sports: Studies and Research

Mislabeling latent variables in factor analysis applied to football playing style research: A commentary

Spyridon Plakias — 2026-03-25

The application of exploratory factor analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) has become increasingly prevalent in football analytics, offering a robust framework for identifying and quantifying playing styles. By condensing a large set of performance indicators into factors, these techniques provide valuable insights into tactical patterns. However, a persistent challenge lies in the subjective labeling of these factors, which can lead to ambiguous or misleading interpretations. This commentary highlights the issue of mislabeling latent variables in football playing style research, drawing on examples from recent studies to illustrate how inaccurate labels can distort both theoretical understanding and practical applications. The implications of poor labeling extend beyond academic discourse, potentially affecting coaches and analysts who rely on data-driven insights for tactical planning. To address these challenges, we propose best practice recommendations emphasizing conceptual clarity, standardized terminology, and expert validation. Accurate and consistent factor labeling is essential to ensure the reliability, comparability, and practical relevance of findings in the evolving field of football performance analysis.

Reclaiming the value of qualitative analysis in sports performance research

Spyridon Plakias — 2026-03-03

Quantitative metrics and technology-driven approaches have reshaped sports performance analysis (SPA), yet they risk overshadowing the equally vital contribution of qualitative methods. This opinion paper highlights the value of qualitative analysis in capturing the complexity, context, and meaning of player and team behaviors, elements that numbers alone cannot explain. Drawing on video-based evaluations, case studies, and narrative reconstructions, qualitative approaches provide insights into tactical, psychological, and interactional dimensions of performance that are indispensable for bridging the science–practice gap. By integrating qualitative and quantitative perspectives, SPA can achieve a more balanced and applicable paradigm, ensuring that scientific research remains relevant to real-world coaching and athlete development. This paper calls for a renewed recognition of qualitative methods as a central pillar of SPA and invites further scholarly contributions to this evolving discussion.

Motor activity and foreign language learning in preschool: A review of movement-based and total physical response interventions

Manuela Valentini — 2026-04-02

Background: Movement may support early foreign-language learning through embodied learning, but the preschool evidence base is fragmented.

Objective: To review empirical studies on movement-based and Total Physical Response (TPR) interventions for foreign-language learning in preschool children.

Method: This study employed a systematic review design based on PRISMA 2020 guidelines, involving database searches and citation tracking to identify empirical studies on movement-based and Total Physical Response (TPR) interventions in preschool foreign-language learning. Studies were screened using predefined eligibility criteria and appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Data from eligible studies were extracted and synthesized narratively due to methodological heterogeneity.

Results: Eight studies met the inclusion criteria. Across stronger controlled studies, semantically integrated movement generally produced more favorable vocabulary and verbal memory outcomes than sedentary teaching or less integrated movement. Evidence focused specifically on TPR was positive in terms of engagement and short-term learning, but methodologically heterogeneous and less robust.

Conclusion:

Current preschool evidence supports the promise of integrated movement-based language teaching, particularly when movement is tightly aligned with instructional content. However, the evidence base remains small, largely limited to vocabulary-related outcomes, and further rigorous preschool trials are needed to clarify optimal implementation and the distinct contribution of TPR.

Improving physical self-perception and health-related fitness through gamification in physical education: A cluster randomized controlled trial

Ferdinando Cereda — 2026-03-08

Background: The global decline in adolescent physical activity necessitates pedagogical innovation to counter disengagement. Traditional norm-referenced physical education (PE) often alienates less skilled students, whereas gamification offers a promising criterion-referenced strategy to enhance motivation and learning.

Objectives: This study investigated the efficacy of a 12-week gamified didactic intervention on perceived physical self-concept, health-related fitness, and physical activity enjoyment among high school students.

Methods: A two-arm, parallel-group, cluster randomized controlled trial (Cluster-RCT) was conducted with 210 Italian adolescents (mean age 15.4 ± 0.9 years) nested within 10 intact classes (average cluster size = 21). Intact classes were randomised to an experimental group (gamified ‘MoveQuest’ module, k = 5) or a control group (traditional direct instruction, k = 5). Data were collected using the Revised Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP-R-IT), the ALPHA-FIT test battery, and the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). Following a per-protocol analytical approach, Linear mixed models (LMMs) were employed to analyse the data, accounting for the nested structure of the educational setting and handling cluster-level variance intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Significance levels were interpreted considering the multiplicity of outcomes.

Results: Significant group × time interactions were observed, with the gamified group demonstrating superior improvements in sports competence (d = 0.65), physical self-worth (d = 0.58), and enjoyment (d = 0.82) compared to the control group. Physiologically, the experimental group showed significantly greater gains in cardiorespiratory fitness (V̇O₂ max) and agility, while body attractiveness remained stable in both groups.

Conclusions:

Gamified didactics significantly enhance psychological engagement and specific motor performance parameters by prioritising individual progress over social comparison. This approach represents a valuable pedagogical tool for fostering physical literacy in secondary PE.

The combination of plyometric and ladder drills can improve acceleration and footwork skills in badminton players

Muhammad Labib Siena Ar Rasyid — 2026-03-08

Background: Recognized globally as the fastest racket sport in the world, badminton demands exceptional acceleration and footwork skills for competitive success. However, many intermediate players often struggle to produce the explosive power needed for fast-paced rallies. To enhance these physical attributes, targeted training interventions, such as a hybrid regimen of plyometric and ladder drills, are often required.

Objectives: This study aims to analyze the efficacy of integrating plyometric exercises with ladder drills in enhancing acceleration and footwork proficiency among badminton players.

Methods: This research employed a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group. Through purposive sampling, 24 male participants (aged 14-16 years) with at least 2 years of training experience, good health, and no history of recent injuries were selected. They were assigned to either the PLD Group (age: 15.00 ± 0.74 years; height: 162.00 ± 0.07 cm; weight: 50.58 ± 5.68 kg; BMI: 19.20 ± 0.88 kg/m²) or the CV Group (age: 15.00 ± 0.85 years; height: 162.08 ± 0.08 cm; weight: 51.75 ± 8.05 kg; BMI: 19.59 ± 1.56 kg/m²). The intervention spanned six weeks, with three sessions per week. Performance in acceleration was assessed using a 10-meter sprint, and footwork skills were assessed using the footwork skills test (Tohar version) pre- and post-intervention. Data analysis employed the Wilcoxon signed-rank and the Mann-Whitney tests.

Results: The Wilcoxon analysis indicated that both the PLD and CV Groups achieved improvements in acceleration and footwork skills (p<0.05). However, the Mann-Whitney test revealed a statistically significant difference between the two groups, with the PLD Group demonstrating superior gains in both acceleration (p<0.05) and footwork skills (p<0.05) compared to the CV Group.

Conclusions: Integrating plyometric training and ladder drills is an effective strategy for significantly improving acceleration and footwork skills in badminton players.

Associations between physical activity intensity and motor balance in elementary school students: A sequential explanatory mixed-methods study

Fahrurrohman Firdaus — 2026-04-01

Background: Children in primary school are becoming more sedentary due to advances in digital technology, which may reduce their physical activity levels. The development of motor skills, especially balance, which is an essential feature of children's motor abilities, can be impacted by a lack of physical activity.

Objectives: This study aimed to examine the association between physical activity intensity and motor balance in elementary school students.

Methods: This study used a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design. The quantitative phase involved 50 students selected using saturated sampling, while the qualitative phase involved teachers and students selected purposively. Physical activity intensity was measured using the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C), while motor balance was assessed using the Balance Beam Test. Quantitative data were analyzed using Spearman's rank correlation, and qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis in NVivo.

Results: With a correlation coefficient of r = 0.687 and p < 0.05, the analysis demonstrated a strong, substantial positive link between motor balance levels and physical activity intensity. The intensity of physical activity accounted for 47.2% of motor balance. Qualitative research revealed that students with high levels of physical activity were more likely to engage in active play, such as running outside, cycling, and soccer, which, in turn, indirectly improve balance and postural stability.

Conclusions: This study demonstrates that physical activity intensity plays an important role in the development of motor balance among elementary school students. These findings highlight the importance of integrating active movement-based learning strategies in physical education programs.

The effect of game-based learning variations on elementary school students’ straddle jump gymnastics skills

Fadhilah Nurwahid — 2026-04-01

Background: Physical education in primary schools is essential for the development of students' motor skills, including gymnastic abilities such as the straddle leap. In fact, numerous students continue to struggle to execute these movements accurately because of repetitive teaching approaches that fail to engage them actively. Consequently, a more stimulating and diverse educational methodology, including game-based activities, is required.

Objectives: This study examines the impact of fluctuations in game-based learning on the enhancement of straddle jump gymnastics skills among primary school students.

Methods: This research employed a quantitative methodology using a pre-experimental framework, namely the One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design. The study population comprised all 40 fourth-grade students at Citungku Elementary School, who were sampled using a total sampling technique. Data were gathered via a practical examination of straddle jump movement proficiency, adhering to the Australian Gymnastic Federation's evaluation criteria, which encompass four components: the initiation, propulsion, suspended posture, and landing. The intervention lasted four weeks and included eight sessions featuring activities such as frog leaps, mirror jumps, rope jumping, and hopscotch, all aimed at training the elements of the straddle jump. The Shapiro-Wilk normality test and paired-samples t-test were conducted in SPSS version 27 for data analysis.

Results: The study found an improvement in students' capabilities following the implementation of game-based learning modifications. The mean pretest score of 58.00 rose to 74.76 in the posttest. The paired-samples t-test yielded a t value of -9.894 and a p-value of 0.001 (< 0.05), indicating a significant difference between pre- and post-treatment outcomes. This demonstrates that the executed game activities facilitated improvements in students' motor coordination, push-off strength, body control during floating, and landing methods during the straddle jump movement.

Conclusions: Variations of game-based learning, including frog jumping, mirror jumping, rope jumping, and hopscotch, have demonstrated efficacy in enhancing straddle jumping gymnastics skills among elementary school students while fostering a more dynamic and pleasurable physical learning experience.

Comparative analysis of plantar pressure distribution among football players across playing positions: A cross-sectional study

Arif Pristianto — 2026-04-01

Background: Football players exhibit different muscle activation patterns during different playing activities, which can affect plantar pressure on the feet. Uneven, unbalanced plantar pressure distribution can cause muscle tension, leading to musculoskeletal injuries in the feet.

Objectives: This study aims to determine and compare plantar pressure distribution among football players based on playing position.

Methods: This study is an analytical observational study using a cross-sectional approach. The sample in this study consisted of 24 football players aged 15-18 years who met the inclusion criteria. Plantar pressure was measured using a Zebris Force Distribution Measurement (FDM) platform on the forefoot and rearfoot areas. Statistical analysis included normality tests (Shapiro-Wilk) and multivariate tests (ANOVA) according to data distribution.

Results: Differences in plantar pressure were observed between defenders, forwards, and strikers in static conditions (p < 0.05), but not in dynamic conditions (p > 0.05).

Conclusions: This study shows differences in plantar pressure distribution among football players in defender, forward, and striker positions under static conditions. However, under dynamic conditions, no significant differences were found among playing positions.

Performance determinants in tropical trail running: Race result analysis of the 5K and 10K Merapi Merbabu de Trail 2025

Siti Baitul Mukarromah — 2026-04-03

Background:

The limited research on the determinants of performance in short-distance trail running in tropical environments is a major problem in understanding the influence of environmental conditions on runners' performance and pacing strategies.

Objectives: This study aimed to examine the influence of race distance, sex, and age on trail running performance in the 5K and 10K categories of the Merapi Merbabu de Trail 2025.

Methods: A retrospective observational race result analysis was conducted using official race data from the Merapi Merbabu de Trail 2025. The study included 429 runners (5K: n = 144; 10K: n = 285), consisting of 275 male and 154 female participants. The primary outcome variable was finish time (in minutes), while the independent variables included race, distance, sex, and age. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 26, including descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, Cohen’s d effect sizes, and multiple linear regression to evaluate predictors of performance.

Results: Results showed a significant difference in performance between race distances. The mean finish time for the 5K category was 152.8 ± 44.3 minutes, while the 10K category averaged 306.1 ± 74.3 minutes (t = -26.68, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.50). Male runners completed the 10K race faster than female runners (293 vs. 345 minutes). Regression analysis indicated that finish time increased by approximately 2–3 minutes per year of age, indicating a progressive decline in performance with increasing age.

Conclusions: These findings indicate that race distance, sex, and age are significant determinants of trail running performance in tropical environments.

Structural relationships between service quality, communication, motivation, and athlete satisfaction in basketball

Fajar Gumilang H.M — 2026-04-09

Background: Many basketball clubs aim to enhance athlete satisfaction through service quality, communication, and motivation; however, empirical evidence validating these factors as measurable constructs remains limited.

Objectives: This study examines whether these variables function as latent constructs influencing athlete satisfaction and validates their measurement structure using confirmatory factor analysis.

Methods: This study used a quantitative survey and included 263 basketball athletes from various clubs in Sidoarjo, comprising 110 males and 153 females. The participant characteristics focused on players still in the developmental stage who had been actively participating in club training programs for 3 to 6 months, with educational levels ranging from junior high school to college. Participants were selected using purposive sampling. Data were collected using a valid and reliable Likert-scale questionnaire and analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) via AMOS 22.

Results: The results demonstrate that service quality (β=0.337, ????=0.000) and communication (β=0.439, ????=0.000) significantly enhance motivation. Furthermore, motivation significantly affects athlete satisfaction (β = 0.582, ???? = 0.000). Crucially, the analysis confirms that motivation mediates the relationship between service quality (indirect effect=0.139) and communication (indirect effect=0.240) on satisfaction.

Conclusions:

Theoretically, this study confirms motivation as a vital psychological mediator linking managerial inputs to athlete satisfaction. In practice, the findings demonstrate that while high-quality physical facilities provide a necessary structural foundation, they must be integrated with effective, supportive coaching communication to optimally ignite athletes' intrinsic drive and maximize their overall club experience.

A comparison of VO₂max response of 15-year-old soccer athletes based on training time in the tropical climate of Bima

Firdaus Firdaus — 2026-04-14

Background: VO₂max is the primary indicator of a soccer athlete's aerobic capacity, but in tropical climates like Bima, high temperatures and humidity can affect VO₂max achievement. Hence, the timing of training is an important factor to consider.

Objectives: This study aims to analyze differences in VO₂max across training times (morning and afternoon) in 15-year-old youth soccer athletes from the Bima Football Association (PERSSEBI).

Methods: The study used a quantitative, comparative, cross-sectional observational design. The study subjects were 45 athletes (age 15.31±0.46; height 163.12±4.35 cm; weight 55.28±3.67 kg; and body mass index (BMI) 20.78±1.18 kg/m²) from the Bima Football Association (PERSEBI), selected by purposive sampling, and divided into morning (n=23) and afternoon (n=22) training groups. VO₂max was measured using a multistage fitness test (Bleep Test). Data analysis included descriptive statistics, the Shapiro–Wilk normality test, the Levene homogeneity test, and the independent-samples t-test at a significance level of 0.05, using IBM SPSS 25.

Results: The descriptive analysis showed that the average VO₂max of the morning group was 43.78 ± 2.34 ml/kg/minute, higher than that of the afternoon group (42.91 ± 2.29 ml/kg/minute). The results of the independent sample t-test showed that there was a significant difference in VO₂max between the two groups with a t value = 2.14 with df = 43 and a significant p value = 0.04 (p < 0.05) with an average difference of 0.87 ml/kg/minute indicating that the morning exercise group had a higher Vo2max value than the afternoon exercise group.

Conclusions: These findings suggest that training time contributes to differences in athletes' VO₂max values in tropical environments, with morning training resulting in higher performance than afternoon training. Therefore, scheduling training that accounts for environmental conditions is crucial for optimizing athletes' VO₂max.

Enhancing locomotor skills in preschoolers through play jump rope

Nancy Trisari Schiff — 2026-04-14

Background: Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS), particularly in the Locomotor Skills domain, are an essential prerequisite for lifelong physical participation. However, the dominance of a sedentary lifestyle threatens young children's mastery of these skills.

Objectives: This study aims to test and prove the effectiveness of the jump rope play intervention program in improving locomotor skills in 5–6-year-old children.

Methods: This research uses a quasi-experimental one-group pretest-posttest design. The sample consisted of 19 males and 11 females, for a total of 30 children. Locomotor skills are measured objectively using the Locomotor subtest of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). The Jump Rope Game intervention was implemented in a structured manner over 8 weeks (3 sessions/week). The data were analyzed using the Paired-Samples T-Test.

Results: The research results show a highly significant improvement in locomotor skills scores after the intervention. The average score increased from 23.30 on the pretest to 27.87 on the posttest, reflecting a 19.61% increase. The paired-samples t-test yielded a p-value of 0.000 (p<0.05), confirming that the difference between the two measurements was statistically significant.

Conclusions: Jump rope games have proven to be an effective, efficient, and enjoyable intervention for significantly improving young children's locomotor skills. This research recommends integrating inexpensive, easily accessible play-based activities into the early childhood education curriculum as a practical strategy to support physical literacy and address basic movement deficits.

Determinants of athlete motivation and engagement in collegiate team sports: Toward a sports development framework

Teejay D. Panganiban — 2026-04-14

Background: Athlete motivation and sustained engagement are essential for retention in collegiate sports programs; however, the institutional and environmental factors that influence these outcomes remain underexplored.

Objectives: This study aimed to examine the determinants of athlete motivation and engagement in collegiate team sports using a Self-Determination Theory perspective, with engagement serving as a proxy for retention behavior.

Methods: A mixed-methods design was employed involving 75 collegiate student-athletes representing basketball, volleyball (men and women), baseball, and softball teams. Quantitative data were collected using a validated, researcher-developed questionnaire based on Self-Determination Theory and analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation, multiple regression, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). In contrast, qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis.

Results: Findings revealed that organizational commitment (M = 3.42) and environmental support (M = 3.47) were rated very high, while incentives and facilities were rated high. All program components were significantly associated with athlete engagement (p < .05). Regression analysis showed that environmental support (β = .36) and perceived support (β = .31) were the strongest predictors, explaining 68% of the variance (R² = 0.68). SEM results indicated a good model fit (CFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.061).

Conclusions: Qualitative findings highlighted intrinsic motivations, such as passion and belonging, as well as extrinsic motivators, including scholarships and rewards, alongside barriers, including financial delays, academic conflicts, and burnout. The study concludes that environmental and perceived support are the primary determinants of athlete engagement, emphasizing the critical role of competence-supportive environments in sustaining motivation and improving athlete retention.

Immunity to rhythm: Visual or auditory stimuli during intense aerobic exertion do not modulate the mood of young adults

Flavio de Souza Araujo — 2026-04-26

Background: High-intensity aerobic exercise can promote higher energy expenditure when compared to low and moderate-intensity exercise. However, vigorous exercise can negatively influence mood responses related to adherence. Auditory and audiovisual resources have been used to improve psychological variables during and after exercise.

Objectives: To analyze the influence of listening to music and watching video clips on mood responses of young adults after a high-intensity aerobic exercise session.

Methods: This is a Cross-Sectional Randomized Controlled Study in which fourteen male participants (23.4 ± 3.1 years; 26.2 ± 3.4 kg/m²) randomly performed exercise sessions on a cyclergometer, at an intensity of 10% above anaerobic threshold, in three situations: control (C), listening to music (M), and watching video clips (VC). At the end of each session, participants underwent 30 min of passive recovery. Mood responses were measured using Brunel’s Mood Scale (BRUMS) before exercise, immediately after exercise, and after recovery. Friedman’s and Wilcoxon’s tests were used, with a significance level of 5%.

Results: No statistical differences were found between conditions (C, C, and VC) for the dimensions confusion, fatigue, anger, tension, and vigor (p>0.05). A statistically significant difference was found for depression before exercise, with M higher than C and VC (p<0.05); however, no differences were observed after exercise or recovery.

Conclusions: Listening to music and/or watching video clips does not influence mood responses in young adults after high-intensity aerobic exercise on a cyclergometer.

Integrity in the age of AI: navigating authorship, accountability and ethical publishing

Yulingga Nanda Hanief — 2026-04-03

The rapid emergence of generative artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping the landscape of academic writing and scholarly publishing, offering both opportunities and ethical challenges. This editorial reflects on the growing implications of AI-assisted authorship, particularly regarding authorship, accountability, and research integrity. While AI tools can improve clarity and accessibility, their misuse raises concerns about the erosion of critical thinking and the reliability of scientific results.

A key issue highlighted in this discussion is the increasing incidence of false or unverifiable references generated through AI-assisted processes. These practices threaten the credibility of scholarly communication and increase the burden on editors and reviewers. In response, this editorial emphasizes the importance of responsible AI use, transparency in authorship, and rigorous source verification.

Furthermore, the article outlines the journal's commitment to maintaining high standards of quality and ethical publishing. This includes strengthening editorial policies, promoting integrity in manuscript preparation, and encouraging accountability among authors. The editorial also calls on the academic community to adopt responsible practices in the use of emerging technologies.

In line with international publishing standards, this editorial is designed to provide critical perspectives, articulate editorial responsibilities, and offer a forward-looking stance on ethical scientific communication. Ultimately, maintaining trust and credibility in the AI era requires a collective commitment to transparency, rigor, and integrity at every stage of the publication process.