Participation in collegiate team sports plays a significant role in promoting physical fitness, psychological well-being, and social development among student-athletes. However, maintaining athlete motivation and sustained engagement remains a critical challenge for sports programs in higher education institutions. Increasing academic demands, limited resources, and competitive pressures often contribute to decreased participation, burnout, and potential dropout among athletes. These issues highlight the need to understand the underlying factors that influence motivation and long-term engagement in collegiate sports settings. Recent international studies support this concern, emphasizing that student-athletes’ participation and continued involvement in sports are shaped by a combination of psychological, academic, and environmental factors (Edris et al., 2025; Kang et al., 2025). Furthermore, research on collegiate athletes highlights that balancing academic and athletic roles significantly influences motivation and engagement, with challenges in role management potentially leading to reduced participation and performance (Choi & Smith, 2024).

Motivation in sports is widely explained through Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes that individuals are more likely to sustain behaviors when their basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) are satisfied (Dénarié, 2023; Van Yperen, 2025). In the context of sports, intrinsic motivation is associated with enjoyment, personal growth, and passion for the game, while extrinsic motivation is influenced by external rewards such as incentives, recognition, and institutional support (Alkasasbeh & Akroush, 2025; Sutriawan et al., 2025). When these motivational dimensions are properly supported, athletes are more likely to demonstrate higher levels of engagement, persistence, and performance.

Previous studies have shown that competence-supportive environments, including access to adequate facilities and equipment, significantly enhance athletes’ motivation and skill development (Sharifi et al., 2024; Nicol & Allen, 2024). Similarly, organizational commitment, reflected in recruitment strategies, retention initiatives, and administrative support, fosters a sense of belonging and stability among athletes, which is essential for sustained participation (Latino et al., 2025). Extrinsic factors such as scholarships, incentives, and competitive opportunities also contribute to motivation, though their effectiveness depends on how they complement rather than diminish intrinsic motivation (Krulj et al., 2024).

Despite these findings, the literature remains unclear about how multiple program components interact to influence athlete engagement as a behavioral indicator of motivation and retention. Many studies have examined motivation, performance, or injury prevention independently; however, limited research has integrated institutional, environmental, and psychological factors within a single analytical framework. Existing literature tends to focus on isolated dimensions of athlete development, such as psychological motivation and well-being (Kang et al., 2025), role balance and motivational perspectives (Choi & Smith, 2024), or participation patterns and physical engagement (Edris et al., 2025). While these studies provide valuable insights, they often do not account for the combined influence of institutional support systems, environmental resources, and psychological determinants on athlete engagement. This fragmented approach highlights a gap in the literature, as understanding athlete motivation and sustained participation requires a more holistic framework that captures the interaction of these multiple factors within collegiate sports settings. Furthermore, there is a lack of empirical evidence focusing on collegiate sports programs in developing contexts, where structural and resource-related challenges may significantly affect athlete experiences.

Athlete engagement has emerged as a practical construct that reflects sustained motivation and commitment. It encompasses active participation, emotional investment, and behavioral involvement in training and competition (Zhang et al., 2025). High levels of engagement indicate that athletes are motivated and likely to continue participating, while low engagement may signal burnout, dissatisfaction, or disengagement (Graña et al., 2021). Thus, engagement serves as a meaningful proxy for understanding retention-related behaviors in sports programs.

In this context, the present study aims to examine the determinants of athlete motivation and engagement in collegiate team sports programs using a Self-Determination Theory perspective. Specifically, it investigates how program components (organizational commitment, incentives, facilities, and equipment) influence athlete engagement. Moreover, the study seeks to develop and validate a structural model to explain these relationships and to explore athletes’ lived experiences regarding intrinsic motivation, extrinsic factors, and barriers to sustained participation. The novelty of this study lies in its integrative approach, which simultaneously examines institutional (organizational commitment), environmental (facilities and equipment), and psychological (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) factors within a single analytical and structural modeling framework. Unlike previous studies that focus on isolated variables, this research combines quantitative modeling and qualitative insights to provide a comprehensive understanding of athlete engagement as a multidimensional construct in collegiate sports settings.

By integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches, this study contributes to the growing body of literature on athlete motivation by providing a comprehensive, context-specific understanding of engagement as a key retention mechanism in collegiate sports programs.

This study aimed to examine the determinants of athlete motivation and engagement in collegiate team sports programs by analyzing the influence of program components, including organizational commitment, extrinsic motivation, perceived support, and environmental support. Both quantitative and qualitative data were utilized to assess the level of program support, determine relationships among variables, identify significant predictors of athlete engagement, and validate the proposed structural model. The results are presented through descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, multiple regression, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and thematic analysis to provide a comprehensive understanding of athlete engagement.

Tables 3 and 4 present the results of the multiple regression analysis examining the predictive role of program-related variables in athlete engagement. The overall model was statistically significant, F(4, 70) = 37.42, p < .001. The model explained 68% of the variance in athlete engagement (R² = 0.68), with an adjusted R² of 0.66.

All predictor variables in the model showed positive, statistically significant coefficients. Environmental support (equipment) had the highest standardized coefficient (β = 0.36, p = 0.001), followed by perceived support (facilities) (β = 0.31, p = 0.003), extrinsic motivation (incentives) (β = 0.27, p = 0.004), and organizational commitment (β = 0.19, p = 0.048).

These results indicate that each predictor variable contributes significantly to the model's explanation of athlete engagement, as reflected in its respective regression coefficient and significance value.

These results confirm that all fit indices met the recommended thresholds, suggesting that the proposed structural model adequately explains the relationships between program support and athlete engagement.

These findings confirm that both extrinsic factors (incentives) and intrinsic-supportive components (facilities, equipment, and organizational commitment) significantly influence athlete engagement, highlighting the importance of a supportive environment in sustaining motivation and participation in collegiate team sports programs.

This study examined the determinants of athlete motivation and engagement in collegiate team sports programs using a Self-Determination Theory perspective. The findings revealed that student-athletes generally perceive their sports programs as supportive, with high to very high levels of organizational commitment, environmental support, and athlete engagement. These results indicate that a well-structured sports development program plays a critical role in fostering both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which are essential for sustained participation. From a Self-Determination Theory perspective, these program components influence athlete engagement by satisfying key psychological needs. Organizational commitment, reflected in effective recruitment, retention, and program management strategies, enhances athletes' sense of relatedness by fostering belonging and connection within the team, while also supporting autonomy through structured yet empowering environments that allow athletes to feel valued and involved in decision-making.

On the other hand, environmental support—particularly the availability of adequate facilities and equipment—directly contributes to the need for competence by enabling athletes to perform effectively, develop skills, and experience mastery in their sport. When these psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied, athletes are more likely to develop self-determined forms of motivation, leading to higher levels of engagement, persistence, and long-term participation in collegiate team sports programs. This supports the assertion that environments that satisfy athletes' psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness foster higher levels of engagement and persistence (Van Yperen, 2025; Alkasasbeh & Akroush, 2025).

The significant positive relationships observed between program components and athlete engagement further reinforce the importance of institutional support systems. In particular, environmental support (equipment) and perceived support (facilities) demonstrated the strongest associations with engagement. These findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that competence-supportive environments enhance athletes' motivation and performance outcomes (Askilashvili, 2025; Akines & Akines, 2024). When athletes are provided with adequate resources, they are more likely to feel competent, which strengthens their commitment to training and competition. Similarly, organizational commitment and incentives were also found to be significantly related to engagement, highlighting the role of both intrinsic-supportive and extrinsic motivational factors in sustaining athlete participation (Eys et al., 2020).

The results of the multiple regression analysis provide further evidence that environmental support is the strongest predictor of athlete engagement, followed by perceived support, extrinsic motivation, and organizational commitment. This indicates that tangible aspects of the sports environment, such as access to quality equipment and facilities, play a critical role in influencing athletes' continued involvement. These findings align with the principles of Self-Determination Theory, which emphasize the importance of competence in fostering self-determined motivation (Dénarié, 2023; Batucan et al., 2025). While extrinsic motivators such as incentives also contribute to engagement, their effectiveness appears to be enhanced when combined with supportive environmental conditions, rather than functioning independently.

The structural equation modeling results further validated the proposed motivation–engagement framework, demonstrating a good model fit and confirming the significant influence of all program components on athlete engagement. The structural path analysis revealed that both intrinsic-supportive factors (facilities, equipment, and organizational commitment) and extrinsic motivators (incentives) significantly predict engagement. This supports the notion that athlete motivation is multidimensional and influenced by the interaction of internal and external factors (Sutriawan et al., 2025; Batucan et al., 2025). The findings suggest that a holistic approach to sports program development—one that integrates psychological, environmental, and organizational elements—is necessary to effectively sustain athlete motivation and retention.

The qualitative findings provide deeper insights into the mechanisms underlying athlete motivation and engagement. Intrinsic factors such as passion for sport, sense of belonging, and personal growth were identified as key drivers of sustained participation. These findings are consistent with literature emphasizing the importance of relatedness and intrinsic enjoyment in promoting long-term engagement in sports (Bergström et al., 2021; Longakit et al., 2025). At the same time, extrinsic factors such as scholarships, recognition, and competitive opportunities were found to reinforce motivation, particularly when aligned with athletes' personal goals.

However, the study also identified several barriers that may hinder sustained engagement, including delayed financial support, academic–athletic conflicts, and inadequate facilities. These challenges highlight a potential mismatch between athletes' needs and institutional support, which may lead to decreased motivation and an increased risk of disengagement or dropout. Additionally, indicators of burnout, such as physical fatigue and time-related pressures, suggest that excessive demands and insufficient recovery opportunities may negatively impact athlete well-being (De Francisco et al., 2020; Panganiban, 2025). These findings underscore the importance of addressing both structural and psychosocial factors in designing effective sports development programs.

Overall, this study's findings emphasize that athlete engagement is a critical mechanism linking program support to retention outcomes. When sports programs effectively provide competence-supportive environments, meaningful incentives, and opportunities for social connection, athletes are more likely to remain engaged and committed. Conversely, systemic challenges and inadequate support structures may undermine motivation and increase the likelihood of disengagement. Therefore, higher education institutions must adopt comprehensive and athlete-centered strategies to enhance motivation, sustain engagement, and promote long-term participation in collegiate team sports.

This study provides empirical evidence that athlete engagement in collegiate team sports is a multidimensional outcome shaped by the interaction of institutional, environmental, and motivational factors. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, the findings indicate that engagement is higher when sports programs support athletes’ needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

The results show that all program components significantly contribute to athlete engagement, with environmental support—particularly access to equipment—and facility-related support emerging as the strongest predictors. Both intrinsic-supportive factors (e.g., organizational commitment and supportive environments) and extrinsic motivators (e.g., incentives and rewards) jointly influence engagement, suggesting the importance of an integrated support system.

Qualitative findings further indicate that intrinsic motivation, reflected in passion, belonging, and personal growth, underpins sustained participation, while extrinsic incentives act as reinforcing factors. However, barriers such as financial constraints, academic–athletic conflicts, and limited resources continue to pose significant risks to long-term engagement and retention.

Overall, athlete engagement serves as a key mechanism linking program support to retention outcomes, underscoring the need for a holistic, well-aligned approach in collegiate sports programs.

The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to all student-athletes who participated in this study, as well as to the institutions and sports program coordinators for their support and cooperation in facilitating data collection.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

This research does not receive external funding.

The authors hereby declares that this research is free from conflicts of interest with any party.