This study is an analytical, observational, cross-sectional design. The study population consisted of all 45 football players in the AT-Farmasi Surakarta club. The sampling technique used in this study was purposive sampling, which involves selecting samples based on inclusion criteria in accordance with the research objectives. Inclusion criteria include football players who are active in matches or training and who participate in the study from start to finish. Exclusion criteria include players with acute lower-extremity injuries, players with a history of lower-extremity injuries that still cause discomfort, and players undergoing rehabilitation programs.

This research has obtained ethical approval from the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Muhammadiyah Surakarta, with No. 1648/KEPK-FIK/XI/2025. All actions involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the principles of research ethics outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Furthermore, the authors obtained permission from the parents of the students and teachers involved, and informed consent was obtained before the study began.

The operational definition of the variable is done by measuring plantar pressure, which is the pressure generated by the sole when it comes into contact with the ground. Plantar pressure is expressed in kilopascals (kPa) or Newtons per square centimeter. Plantar pressure measurements are taken using a Force Distribution Measurement (FDM) device, which records plantar pressure in the medial, lateral, anterior, and posterior areas.

Each participant was asked to perform the stance phase by standing on the FDM platform three times for measurement. Higher values indicate greater plantar load on specific areas of the foot. The instrument has very high reliability, as indicated by Intra-class Correlation Coefficients (ICCs) of 0.916 for intrarater and 0.915 for interrater, which are considered excellent (Patel & M., 2023).

The initial stage of data analysis begins with a Shapiro–Wilk normality test to ensure the data are normally distributed, enabling parametric statistical testing. Next, a descriptive analysis was conducted to characterize the sample. After that, the One-Way ANOVA test was used because this study aimed to compare plantar pressure values across more than two playing position groups in football athletes, making it the most appropriate method to assess average differences between groups. If the ANOVA results show significant differences, the analysis is continued with a post hoc test to determine which playing position group contributed to the differences.

Note: Age classification based on WHO (early adolescence & late adolescence), BMI classification using WHO 2007 Growth Reference.

*Significancy p < 0,05

Post-hoc tests showed that most comparisons of plantar pressure between playing positions did not show significant differences in plantar pressure values, either in static or dynamic conditions (Table 3). However, there were some significant differences in static conditions. In the right forefoot area, a significant difference was found between defenders and attackers (p-value = 0.032; mean difference = 43.416). In the right backfoot, there was a significant difference between defenders and attackers with a p-value of 0.032 and a mean difference of 43.416, as well as between attackers and strikers with a p-value of 0.035 and a mean difference of -42.083.

Additionally, in the left forefoot area, a significant difference reappeared between defenders and attackers with a p-value of 0.046 and a mean difference of 30.633. In the entire plantar area during dynamic conditions, there were no significant differences, with all p-values > 0.05. Overall, the post-hoc test results show that differences in plantar pressure distribution are more common in static conditions, particularly in the right forefoot, right backfoot, and left forefoot. Meanwhile, in dynamic conditions, the differences between positions tend to be insignificant. These findings indicate that when players are stationary, position characteristics can affect plantar load, but when moving, plantar pressure patterns become more uniform between positions.

Greater plantar pressure in the forefoot region was observed in attacking players (Figure 2b) compared to other positions. In contrast, defenders and strikers (Figure 2a and 2c) showed a more dominant plantar pressure distribution in the rearfoot region.

Further test results showed significant differences in the right forefoot area between defenders and attackers. These findings indicate that the two positions have different biomechanical patterns of plantar pressure distribution. Attackers exert higher plantar pressure on the right forefoot than defenders do. Higher plantar pressure in attackers is relevant because this position requires activities such as sprinting, rapid toe pressure, and sudden acceleration, which require greater weight to be supported by the front of the foot. These findings are in line with previous studies showing that increased sprinting and repetitive acceleration movements can increase plantar load (Girard et al., 2018). In addition, the high frequency of hard contact on the anterior part of the foot among attackers can increase the risk of musculoskeletal problems, such as metatarsalgia and stress fractures (Sun et al., 2024).

In players occupying the defender position, plantar pressure in the right forefoot region tends to be lower. This finding may be attributed to the more upright postural alignment commonly adopted by defenders to maintain balance and postural stability during marking and anticipatory movement (Hall et al., 2022). Consequently, the load distribution shifts relatively away from the forefoot, resulting in lower plantar pressure in this region than in players in the attacking position.

The right backfoot area shows significant differences between defenders and attackers, and between attackers and strikers. These findings indicate that the distribution of plantar pressure on the right backfoot in static conditions is greatly influenced by the biomechanical characteristics and role requirements of each position.

The difference in plantar pressure between defenders and attackers can be explained by the fact that defenders focus more on stability, balance, and quick responses to their opponents' movements. Defenders tend to maintain a more upright posture and a more even distribution of pressure across the entire sole to maintain body control and observe opposing players (Katis et al., 2017). This is different from attackers, who are more guided by sprinting and acceleration movements.

Meanwhile, the difference between the forward and striker positions shows that plantar pressure differs between the two, with the striker focusing more on attacking. In the striker position, players tend to focus more on maintaining their position and receiving the ball, which results in leaning on the back foot to maintain balance and make quick changes in body direction (Atasever & Kiyici, 2023). Conversely, attackers are often in a fast transition phase, so their weight tends to be more on the forefoot. Other studies also support the finding that offensive players show greater plantar load on the rear of the foot during the pre-explosive movement phase (Vera-Ivars et al., 2025). This combination of differing activity demands and biomechanical adaptations causes significant differences in right backfoot plantar pressure during static conditions. Implications for performance: forefoot patterns in attackers enhance acceleration, while backfoot dominance in defenders and strikers strengthens stability and balance control, in line with the demands of their respective roles.

There is also a significant difference between the playing positions of defenders and attackers in the left forefoot area. Although the left foot is often considered the non-dominant foot for most football players, these findings show that differences in playing position still affect the distribution of plantar pressure in the left forefoot. In the attacking position, the left forefoot still plays an important role in balancing the body when sprinting and preparing the body to kick with the dominant foot.

This aligns with previous research, which explains that even though the left foot is non-dominant, it still functions because the non-dominant foot also plays an important role in maintaining postural balance during kicking or sudden acceleration movements (Sadhnani, 2024).

Thus, differences in plantar pressure in the left forefoot between defenders and attackers illustrate the biomechanical requirements of each position, even though this foot is not the dominant one. These findings also show that the non-dominant foot continues to make a significant contribution to players' performance and movement control, especially during intensive activities performed by attacking players.

Overall, these position-based differences can be explained by biomechanical load-transfer mechanisms, in which plantar pressure reflects the distribution of body weight and ground reaction forces through the foot during sport-specific movements. Football players in attacking roles, who frequently sprint, accelerate, and make rapid directional changes, tend to shift pressure toward the forefoot to facilitate propulsion. In contrast, defenders and strikers rely more on stability and postural control, leading to relatively greater or more evenly distributed loading on the rearfoot.

There was no significant difference in plantar pressure on the left backfoot between playing positions. This finding indicates that the use of the backfoot and sole in static conditions is relatively uniform between positions. The backfoot functions as an area of stabilization and maintains body balance, so that, even though players' activities differ between positions, in static conditions, the left backfoot still produces a similar pressure pattern. Previous studies have also shown that backfoot pressure is more often influenced by postural control strategies (Fujishita et al., 2023). Therefore, the absence of differences in the left backfoot area is reasonable and consistent with previous literature.

In dynamic conditions, this study found no significant differences in plantar pressure distribution across football players' playing positions. These findings indicate that when moving, plantar pressure patterns tend to be uniform across player positions. The results of this study are in line with previous studies reporting that plantar pressure measurements using baropodometry during dynamic measurements tend to show a more stable pattern than during static measurements (Gurau et al., 2025). Other studies also report that plantar pressure distribution in football players under dynamic conditions does not show significant differences, as the distribution pattern during movement is relatively uniform among athletes (Hawrylak et al., 2021).

However, in a study by Vera-Ivars et al. (2025), plantar pressure was observed in adolescent football players during dynamic conditions, with higher pressure in the forefoot region, especially during the acceleration phase and during fast running. The study also emphasized that foot morphology factors, such as foot arch, contributed to variations in plantar pressure. Haryoko (2023) shows that measurements of structural parameters of the foot, such as the Arch Height Index and the results of the Foot Print Test, can reflect the characteristics of the arch of the foot that play a role in the load distribution pattern on the sole, which is relevant to understanding variations in plantar pressure among individuals with different foot function profiles.

The findings of this study still have specific implications for physiotherapy and injury-prevention programs for football players. Biomechanical analysis is important for understanding motor adaptations involving the foot's structure and the function of the lower joints during the stabilization phase of movement in athletes (Susilo et al., 2025). Differences in plantar pressure distribution across playing positions indicate that each position imposes distinct biomechanical demands, consistent with Hawrylak et al. (2021), who found that movement demands and field role influence plantar pressure variation in athletes. Information on the specific plantar pressure patterns for each position can help physical therapists develop more targeted injury-prevention programs (Al Attar et al., 2022). Training dynamic balance, core control, and improved landing strategy are highly relevant interventions, as they differentiate the focus of the exercises and modify the exercise load based on the area of the foot that receives the most pressure (Dunsky et al., 2017).

This study has several limitations: the small sample size and single-club recruitment limit generalizability. The cross-sectional design precludes causal inference. Plantar pressure assessment was conducted under controlled static and dynamic conditions, which may not fully reflect the demands of real matches. Key influencing factors such as foot morphology, muscle strength, fatigue, and footwear were not controlled. Additionally, although training and match frequency were reported, the total duration of training and match exposure was not quantified, which may affect the interpretation of plantar loading patterns and injury risk.

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