Sports are organized and systematic physical exercises that improve physical fitness and involve repetitive body movements. Not only is exercise known for its powerful benefits for physical health, but it is also increasingly recognized for its mental health and antidepressant benefits (Ross et al., 2023).

One of the most popular sports worldwide is tennis. Tennis is a highly effective fitness activity that can provide health-related physical and mental benefits, ranging from improved cardiovascular, metabolic, and bone health to increased agility, coordination, and stress and anxiety management (Groppel & Nicholas, 2009). Tennis players often start playing in childhood and can continue into late adulthood (Bylak & Hutchinson, 1998).

Tennis is a complex sport that demands specific physical abilities such as strength, speed, endurance, and skill (Fernandez-Fernandez, Ulbricht, & Ferrauti, 2012). Played using a racket and a rubber ball, tennis can be conducted in singles or doubles format on a standardized court measuring 23.77 meters in length and 8.23 meters in width for singles, or 10.97 meters for doubles. The sport includes a variety of technical strokes such as forehand and backhand, which are performed using different grips, including the continental, eastern, and western grips—each suited to specific stroke types (Dong et al., 2024).

The development of tennis in Indonesia is evident from the increasing number of tennis clubs across urban, suburban, and rural areas. These clubs serve elite athletes and the general public, offering access to structured training. One such club is the First Tennis Club, founded in 2022 in the post-pandemic era. The club aims to accommodate teenagers and adults who want to engage in tennis, providing instruction from certified coaches who are former athletes.

However, while the First Tennis Club has competent coaches, each coach exhibits a different communication style when delivering instructions. The relationship between coach and athlete is often defined as task-oriented and collaborative, aiming to achieve mutual goals through meaningful social interaction (Davis et al., 2019). This relationship extends beyond physical training to encompass mental and emotional development and is heavily influenced by communication. As Xiao et al. (2022) highlight, an athlete's competitive ability is closely linked to their physical fitness, which is shaped by the coach's alignment with their goals, primarily communicated through interaction.

Effective communication between the coach and the athlete is fundamental to optimizing performance. Achieving peak performance in tennis requires mastery of technical, physical, mental, and tactical dimensions (Berhimpong et al., 2023). This highlights the multidimensional nature of tennis performance (Kolman et al., 2019), further emphasizing the importance of communication in the coach-athlete dynamic.

Communication style encompasses verbal and non-verbal cues, including empathy, tone, clarity, and gesture. A balanced communication style facilitates understanding, improves motivation, and strengthens coach-player rapport. According to Purwanti & Cholifah (2019), communication style is essential for conveying emotion, instruction, and influence, ultimately affecting players' responsiveness and satisfaction. Conversely, poor communication may inhibit learning and diminish satisfaction.

In addition to communication, the structure of the training program also plays a key role in enhancing player satisfaction. Well-designed programs that align with the player's skill level help build confidence, maintain motivation, and promote technical improvement. Conversely, mismatched training plans may result in player discomfort or stagnation.

Referring to this background, the study identifies several core problems: differences in coaching communication styles, the appropriateness of training programs, and how the interaction of both affects the satisfaction of novice players. This study focuses on novice players enrolled at the First Tennis Club in 2025.

Previous studies support the importance of examining these variables. Fatah & Farida (2023) found that interpersonal communication significantly influences athlete performance. Similarly, Shubhi (2022) emphasized the role of verbal and non-verbal communication between coaches and athletes. Evenetus et al. (2019) highlighted that training program design—especially variations and intensity control—has a crucial effect on athlete outcomes. Meanwhile, Kurnia (2019) pointed out the foundational components of effective health exercise programs. However, while these studies examined communication or training separately, few have investigated their combined influence on player satisfaction, especially in beginner-level tennis.

This research fills that gap by examining two independent variables—coaching communication style and training programs—and their effect on the dependent variable: satisfaction among beginner tennis players. This approach offers novelty in integrating both variables, which have not previously been tested in Indonesia's tennis coaching context.

Accordingly, the study aims to: (1) analyze the effect of coaching communication style on novice player satisfaction, (2) evaluate the influence of training programs on satisfaction, and (3) compare the relative effectiveness of both variables. The findings will help determine the most suitable strategy to enhance training outcomes at First Tennis Club.

Ultimately, this study contributes to developing coaching strategies that support skill acquisition and motivation in beginner athletes. It also provides practical recommendations for coaches and club managers by offering evidence-based insights on effective communication and program design. The researcher expects that the study "The Impact of Coaching Communication Styles and Training Programs on Novice Tennis Player Satisfaction: A Case Study from Indonesia" will contribute to sports coaching and athlete development.

The Spearman correlation test shows a strong relationship between the coach's communication style and the level of player satisfaction (0.615), in line with the findings that clear instructions, positive feedback, and a supportive approach from the coach at Club First Tennis contribute to an effective and enjoyable training atmosphere, increasing enthusiasm for learning. Likewise, the varied, focused, and relevant training program at Club First Tennis strongly correlates with player satisfaction (0.620), confirming the hypothesis that the adaptive program design effectively increases interest and comfort. The comparison of the two factors confirms that although both are individually strongly correlated, the combination of an effective communication style and a structured training program is the primary key in maximizing the satisfaction and motivation of novice players, because both complement each other to create a fun and productive coaching process.

All questionnaire items used to measure coach communication style, training program, and player satisfaction demonstrated satisfactory construct validity. The item-total correlation coefficients for all three instruments exceeded the critical value of 0.279 (N = 50, α = 0.05), indicating that each item was significantly correlated with its respective total score. Thus, all items were considered valid and suitable for further analysis.

The normality test using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (Table 1) method was conducted to assess data distribution symmetry (Supono et al., 2022). Based on the results, the communication style (p = 0.004) and training program (p = 0.045) variables were not normally distributed (p < 0.05), while the facilities and input variables were normally distributed (p = 0.105 > 0.05). Given the non-normality of two variables, subsequent analysis employed the non-parametric Spearman test to examine relationships among variables.

The next nonparametric test is Spearman's Rank Correlation. The Spearman rank correlation is a nonparametric analog of Pearson's correlation, which is used to determine the linear correlation between the ranks of two variables (Salman & Aleem, 2024). This application measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, specifically, for those measured on an ordinal or interval/ratio scale that are not normally distributed. The analysis results are as follows in Table 2.

The findings of this study are based on the Non-Parametric Test (Spearman), showing that the coach's communication style significantly impacts the satisfaction of novice players. The coaches at Club First Tennis can deliver clear instructions, provide positive feedback, and demonstrate a supportive approach, collectively contributing to creating a more effective and enjoyable training atmosphere. This positive interpersonal relationship has increased the players' enthusiasm for learning. This is supported by the results of the Spearman correlation test of 0.615, which indicates a strong relationship between the coach's communication style and the level of player satisfaction. Thus, this study verifies that the coach's implementation of a supportive and clear communication style is very relevant in increasing the satisfaction of novice players. Data analysis also shows that the training program implemented at Club First Tennis contributes to increasing novice players' satisfaction. The training program is designed in a varied, focused, and relevant way, tailored to the specific needs of novice athletes. This adaptive program design has been proven effective in increasing the interest and comfort of players during the training process. This is reflected in the Spearman correlation value of 0.620, which indicates a significant and strong relationship between the quality of the training program and the level of player satisfaction. Therefore, this study confirms that a structured and relevant training program is crucial to achieving novice player satisfaction.

The comparison between the two factors shows that the combination of the coach's communication style and the training program significantly influences the satisfaction of novice players. Although both factors strongly correlate with player satisfaction (0.615 for communication and 0.620 for the training program), the overall findings underline that both complement each other in creating a fun and productive coaching process. When the coach can deliver the program with effective communication and appropriate training materials, the satisfaction and motivation of novice players will increase optimally. This implies that to maximize player satisfaction, it is important not only to focus on one aspect but instead to integrate the strengths of the coach's communication with the design of an effective training program.

One of the primary goals of a tennis coach is to foster player satisfaction and engagement, especially among beginners. This study examined how two critical coaching components—communication style and training program design—relate to the satisfaction levels of novice tennis players. The findings revealed significant and strong positive correlations between coaching communication style (ρ = 0.615, p < 0.01) and training program (ρ = 0.620, p < 0.01) with player satisfaction. These results suggest that as communication becomes more effective and training programs become more structured, athletes tend to experience higher satisfaction levels.

Theoretically, these results reinforce that communication is a core element in shaping athlete outcomes. Supportive communication was particularly influential, encouraging constructive feedback and clear instructions. This finding aligns with Karafil and Ulas (2023), who emphasized that ineffective coach-athlete communication can hinder performance and disrupt team cohesion. Clear, empathetic, and two-way communication helps athletes feel valued and understood, contributing to positive emotional training experiences.

Structured and well-designed training programs also emerged as a significant factor influencing satisfaction. Athletes are more likely to stay motivated and committed when training sessions are planned with appropriate intensity, progression, variation, and purpose. Zhu et al. (2024), through the lens of the 3+1Cs model (Closeness, Commitment, Complementarity, and Co-orientation), emphasized the importance of coach behaviors and knowledge in shaping athletes' development, not only in skill but also in psychological engagement and social bonding.

About instructional methods, Fetisova (2021) noted that diagnostic ability—such as identifying and addressing technical errors holistically—improves the quality of instructional communication. Coaches with strong diagnostic skills can explain corrections clearly and meaningfully, increasing athletes' understanding and satisfaction. However, practical implementation often falls short. For example, Junior Development and Club Professional coaches in Australia reportedly relied heavily on direct teaching styles, such as Practice Style-B and Command Style-A, despite claiming to apply more varied strategies (Mosston & Ashworth, 2008). This mismatch between perceived and actual teaching behavior highlights a gap in coaching education and reflective practice.

From a practical standpoint, the findings suggest that coaches should adopt more interactive, empathetic, and constructive communication approaches. As Davis et al. (2022) noted, high-quality athlete-coach relationships are built on continuous, effective communication. Furthermore, training programs should be tailored to meet individual player needs by considering factors such as training load, skill level, learning preferences, and developmental goals. These strategies enhance athlete satisfaction and foster long-term commitment to sport participation.

Although this study focused primarily on interpersonal and programmatic variables, contextual factors such as facilities and equipment availability also contribute to the overall athlete experience. While their direct impact on satisfaction was not the focus, supportive environments can still facilitate better engagement. As highlighted by Magnusen et al. (2023), quality training infrastructure, even if secondary, supports athletes' psychological and physical readiness.

This study highlights that both the coach’s communication style and the structure of the training program play a crucial role in enhancing the satisfaction of novice tennis players. Coaches who communicate clearly, provide encouragement, and demonstrate a supportive approach contribute to a more engaging and enjoyable training experience. Likewise, training programs that are well-planned, varied, and aligned with the players’ abilities positively impact their comfort and motivation.

The interaction between effective communication and appropriate training design creates a productive learning environment. When coaches deliver training content with empathy and structure, player satisfaction tends to increase.

In light of these findings, it is recommended that coaches at Club First Tennis continue to strengthen athlete-centered communication practices. Additionally, club management should conduct regular evaluations to ensure training programs remain responsive, structured, and tailored to players' development needs.

The authors sincerely thank all parties who supported this research. Special thanks are extended to the Department of Sports Coaching Education, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, for providing the facilities and support that enabled the successful completion of this scientific article.

The author expresses his deepest appreciation to all parties who have helped in completing this research.

This research did not receive external funding.

The author states that this study was carried out independently, with full integrity, and without any conflicts of interest involving any organization, institution, or individual. There were no financial, professional, or personal affiliations that could have influenced the design, data collection, analysis, or interpretation of the research.